Alexander the Great

Alexander the Great

The story of Alexander III of Macedon, known to history as Alexander the Great, reads like the most incredible adventure novel ever written, except that every extraordinary detail actually happened. Born in 356 BC in the ancient capital of Pella, this remarkable young man would go on to create one of the largest empires in human history before dying at the impossibly young age of thirty-two. Yet even more fascinating than his legendary military conquests are the countless bizarre, inspiring, and sometimes shocking anecdotes that reveal the true character of this complex historical figure.
From the moment of his birth, Alexander seemed destined for greatness—or perhaps his family simply possessed an extraordinary talent for creating legendary stories. The day he was born, his father Philip II received three pieces of remarkable news: his general Parmenion had defeated the combined Illyrian and Paeonian armies, his horses had won at the Olympic Games, and most mysteriously of all, the magnificent Temple of Artemis in Ephesus—one of the Seven Wonders of the World—had burned to the ground. The ancient historian Hegesias of Magnesia would later claim that the temple had burned because the goddess Artemis was away, busy attending Alexander's birth. Whether these stories were true or cleverly crafted propaganda, they established from the very beginning that this was no ordinary child.
The Boy Who Tamed Bucephalus
Perhaps no single anecdote better captures Alexander's unique character than the famous story of how he tamed Bucephalus, the magnificent stallion that would carry him from Macedonia to India. When Alexander was merely twelve or thirteen years old, a Thessalian horse dealer named Philonicus brought an enormous black stallion with a distinctive white star on his forehead to the court of Philip II, demanding the astronomical sum of thirteen talents for the beast.
The horse appeared magnificent—tall, muscular, and spirited—but there was one significant problem: no one could mount him. Every experienced horseman in Philip's court tried and failed, with the stallion rearing up violently against anyone who approached. After watching several grown men make fools of themselves, Philip ordered the horse to be taken away, dismissing it as worthless.
But young Alexander had been watching carefully, really observing while the adults were too busy trying to prove their courage to notice what was actually wrong. Unlike the frustrated men around him, Alexander realized that the horse wasn't angry or vicious—he was afraid. Specifically, the intelligent boy noticed that Bucephalus was panicking at the sight of his own shadow moving on the ground.
With the confidence that would become his trademark, Alexander asked his father for permission to try taming the horse. The court erupted in laughter at the presumption of this boy who thought he could succeed where seasoned warriors had failed. Philip, perhaps amused by his son's audacity, agreed but set a condition: if Alexander failed, he would have to pay for the horse himself—all thirteen talents.
Alexander approached Bucephalus calmly, speaking soothingly to the frightened animal. Then, in a moment of pure brilliance, he gently took the horse's bridle and turned him to face directly into the sun, so that Bucephalus could no longer see his own shadow dancing threateningly on the ground. The boy also removed his fluttering cloak, which had been adding to the horse's distress. Within moments, the "wild" stallion had calmed completely, allowing Alexander to mount him successfully.
Philip was so impressed and moved by this display of intelligence, courage, and intuition that he reportedly kissed his son tearfully and declared, "My boy, you must find a kingdom big enough for your ambitions. Macedon is too small for you". The horse was purchased immediately, and Alexander named him Bucephalas, meaning "ox-head," probably referring to the distinctive shape of the white marking on his forehead. This partnership between boy and horse would become legendary, lasting until Bucephalus's death from old age in India nearly twenty years later, after which Alexander founded the city of Bucephala in his honor.
An Unconventional Education
Alexander's education was as extraordinary as everything else about his life. When he turned thirteen, his father hired none other than Aristotle, one of the greatest philosophers in human history, to be his tutor. The arrangement was sealed with an interesting bargain: Philip agreed to rebuild Aristotle's hometown of Stagira, which he had previously destroyed in one of his military campaigns.
For three years, Aristotle educated Alexander in philosophy, ethics, science, medicine, and the arts, attempting to create what we might call an "enlightened monarch". The young prince proved to be a brilliant student, developing a lifelong love of learning and literature. Most famously, Aristotle gave Alexander a specially annotated copy of Homer's Iliad, which became his most treasured possession.
However, the popular story that Alexander slept with this copy of the Iliad under his pillow is almost certainly false, despite being repeated by countless historians. In Alexander's time, books were written on scrolls, and the Iliad was so long that it required seven to nine separate scrolls to contain the entire epic. These scrolls, when rolled up, were each roughly the size of a modern wine bottle. Alexander kept his precious annotated Iliad in a special jeweled casket, but the idea of sleeping with all those scrolls under his pillow would have been physically impossible—and extremely uncomfortable.
What Alexander actually kept under his pillow was a dagger, which was a more practical and believable habit for a young Macedonian prince. The confusion arose from a misunderstanding of the Persian court custom called "the King's Pillow" (Proskephalaion Basilikon), which referred not to an actual pillow but to a special room where the king kept his most precious possessions. Later historians, including Plutarch, seem to have taken this idiom literally, creating one of history's most persistent misconceptions.
The Young Regent's First Victory
Alexander's education under Aristotle ended abruptly when he was just sixteen years old, not because his studies were complete, but because duty called. Philip II departed on a military campaign against the Thracians to the north, leaving his teenage son as regent and heir apparent of Macedon. This was an enormous responsibility for someone so young, but Alexander would prove more than equal to the task.
Almost immediately, the Thracian tribe of Maedi decided to test the young regent by revolting against Macedonian authority. They probably assumed that a sixteen-year-old boy would be an easy target. They were catastrophically wrong. Alexander responded with lightning speed, driving the Maedi from their territory and establishing a new colony in their lands. He even founded a city, which he modestly named Alexandropolis—the first of more than twenty cities that would eventually bear his name.
This early victory established several patterns that would define Alexander's entire career: his incredible speed of response, his complete confidence in his own abilities, and his habit of founding cities to commemorate his conquests. At sixteen, he was already showing the world the kind of leader he would become.
A Family Drama Worthy of Shakespeare
Alexander's family life was a constant source of drama that would have made even the most scandalous reality television show seem tame by comparison. His father Philip II was a brilliant king and military reformer, but he was also a heavy drinker and a serial polygamist. Philip's drinking habits were excessive even by Macedonian standards, and since Macedonians were already notorious throughout the Greek world for their love of undiluted wine, this was saying quite a lot.
Alexander's mother, Olympias of Epirus, was perhaps even more formidable than his father. Ancient sources describe her as one of the most dangerous and formidable women in the ancient world. She was deeply involved in mystery religions and allegedly kept snakes as pets, claiming that Alexander was not Philip's son at all, but rather the child of the god Zeus. Whether she actually believed this or was engaging in sophisticated political propaganda remains unclear, but she certainly succeeded in planting the idea in her son's mind.
The tension between Alexander's parents was not helped by Philip's drinking and womanizing. As was customary in the Macedonian royal house, Philip took multiple wives for political reasons, but when he married Cleopatra Eurydice, his first purely Macedonian wife, it created a crisis. Alexander began to worry that any children from this marriage might threaten his position as heir.
The situation exploded dramatically at Philip's wedding feast to Cleopatra in 337 BC. The bride's uncle, Attalus, rose during the celebration and proclaimed that he hoped the gods would give Philip a "lawful successor" through his new Macedonian wife. This was an obvious insult to Alexander, whose mother was Epirote, not Macedonian.
Alexander, by now a battle-tested eighteen-year-old warrior, was not about to let this slide. He hurled his wine cup at Attalus and shouted, "What am I then, a bastard?". Philip, drunk and furious, staggered to his feet to chastise his son but slipped and fell to the floor. Seeing his great father reduced to a stumbling drunk, Alexander delivered a final, devastating insult: "See there... the man who makes preparations to pass out of Europe into Asia, overthrown in passing from one seat to another".
This confrontation reveals Alexander's complex relationship with his father—simultaneously loving, admiring, and disappointed. Philip was planning the great invasion of Persia that Alexander would eventually complete, but in that moment, he appeared as nothing more than a drunken fool who couldn't even cross a room without falling.
The Assassination That Changed History
The family drama reached its shocking climax in 336 BC at another wedding—this time the marriage of Alexander's sister Cleopatra to Alexander of Epirus. During the ceremony, Philip II was assassinated by Pausanias, a member of his own royal bodyguard. The motives for the assassination remain unclear, but the consequences were immediate and dramatic.
At twenty years old, Alexander found himself king of Macedon in circumstances that would have overwhelmed most people. His succession was by no means guaranteed—Macedonian royal succession was often decided by whoever could eliminate their rivals most effectively. Alexander proved ruthlessly efficient at this deadly game. He immediately ordered the execution of all possible rivals, including his cousin and two Macedonian princesses. It was brutal, but it was also necessary in the violent world of Macedonian politics.
The Destruction of Thebes
Alexander's first major test as king came when several Greek city-states, led by Thebes, decided to rebel against Macedonian rule. They had heard rumors that the young king had been killed in a northern campaign and saw an opportunity to break free from Macedonian dominance. Unfortunately for the Thebans, the rumors of Alexander's death had been greatly exaggerated.
In one of the most impressive military maneuvers of the ancient world, Alexander marched his army 240 miles in just fourteen days from Pelion in Illyria to Thebes. When he appeared before their walls, the Thebans must have thought they were seeing a ghost. When they refused to surrender, Alexander made an example that would be remembered for centuries.
The siege of Thebes was brief but devastating. Alexander destroyed the city completely, sparing only the temples and the house of the poet Pindar (whose work he admired). Six thousand Thebans were killed, and all survivors were sold into slavery. The message to the rest of Greece was clear: rebellion against Alexander would not be tolerated.
The Strange Habits of a Conqueror
Alexander's personal habits were as distinctive as his military tactics. Unlike most Greeks of his era, who considered it civilized to dilute their wine with water, Alexander preferred to drink his wine straight, a habit he inherited from Macedonian culture. This was considered somewhat barbaric by Greek standards, but Alexander didn't seem to care much about Greek opinions of Macedonian customs.
His drinking was legendary even by Macedonian standards, and it occasionally led to tragic consequences. During one particularly heavy drinking session in the city of Maracanda, Alexander got into an argument with Cleitus the Black, one of his oldest friends and the man who had saved his life at the Battle of the Granicus River. In a drunken rage, Alexander killed Cleitus with his own hands, an act that horrified him when he sobered up and which haunted him for the rest of his life.
Despite his love of wine, Alexander was not an alcoholic in the modern medical sense. Studies of ancient sources suggest that his heavy drinking was periodic rather than constant, often occurring during celebrations or times of stress. Nevertheless, his relationship with alcohol was clearly problematic and may have contributed to his early death.
The Pilgrimage to Troy
When Alexander finally launched his invasion of Asia in 334 BC, his first stop was not a strategic military target but rather the ancient city of Troy. This was not merely a sightseeing trip—it was a carefully orchestrated piece of propaganda designed to present his campaign as a continuation of the legendary Trojan War.
Alexander's behavior at Troy was both touching and slightly ridiculous. He visited the supposed tomb of his hero Achilles, where he anointed himself with oil and then ran a race around the tomb completely naked, accompanied by his friends. This was apparently a traditional way of honoring dead heroes, but the image of the future conqueror of the known world running naked around an ancient grave site is undeniably amusing.
He also took what he believed to be Achilles' shield from the tomb, which he used throughout his subsequent campaigns. Alexander had been obsessed with Achilles since childhood, seeing himself as the hero reborn, and this pilgrimage allowed him to literally arm himself with his idol's weapons. When someone offered to show him Paris's lyre, Alexander dismissed it, saying he was only interested in the lyre of Achilles, "to which he used to sing the glorious deeds of brave heroes".
The Mystery of His Appearance
Despite being one of history's most famous figures, Alexander's exact appearance remains something of a mystery, though ancient sources provide some intriguing clues. He was apparently of medium height with a well-proportioned, muscular build. His skin was described as fair with a ruddy complexion, especially on his face and chest.
Most distinctive was his hair, which ancient sources describe as thick, slightly curly, and "lion-colored" or chestnut. He wore it in a style called anastole, where two locks at the center of his forehead stood straight up and were parted slightly off-center. This leonine hairstyle was apparently meant to emphasize his fierce, lion-like nature.
Perhaps most intriguingly, some sources suggest that Alexander may have had heterochromia—one blue eye and one brown eye. His eyes were described as "dark and fiery" with an intense, "melting" gaze that was apparently one of his most memorable features. He was clean-shaven at a time when most Greek men wore beards, a fashion choice that became popular among rulers who wanted to imitate his youthful appearance.
The Faithful Companions
Alexander was never alone in his adventures. Throughout his campaigns, he was accompanied by his beloved horse Bucephalus and his faithful dog Peritas. Peritas was apparently a Molossian breed, known for their size, strength, and courage. According to legend, Peritas once saved Alexander's life by attacking an elephant that was charging his master, biting the enormous creature's trunk and giving Alexander time to escape.
The bond between Alexander and Peritas was so strong that when the dog died, Alexander founded a city in his honor, just as he had done for Bucephalus. This city was probably located somewhere in modern-day Pakistan, not far from the city he named after his horse. The fact that Alexander honored both his horse and his dog with cities demonstrates the depth of his emotional attachments and perhaps a more sentimental side to his character than his military reputation might suggest.
The Underwater Explorer
One of the most bizarre stories about Alexander comes from medieval romances rather than reliable historical sources, but it's too entertaining to ignore. According to these later tales, Alexander became fascinated with exploring not just the surface of the earth, but also the depths of the ocean. The medieval storytellers claimed that he had a glass diving bell constructed and descended to the bottom of the sea to explore the underwater world.
In some versions of this legend, Alexander discovers that the ocean floor is inhabited by strange creatures and learns important philosophical lessons from his underwater adventures. While this story is obviously fictional, it reflects the medieval perception of Alexander as someone whose curiosity and ambition knew no bounds—a man who wanted to conquer not just the earth, but every realm of existence.
The Mystery of His Death
The circumstances surrounding Alexander's death in 323 BC remain one of history's great mysteries, spawning numerous theories that range from plausible to bizarre. He died in Babylon at the age of thirty-two, after falling ill following what ancient sources describe as a prolonged drinking party.
The most peculiar detail about his death is that his body showed no signs of decomposition for nearly a week after he was declared dead. His followers believed this was proof of his divinity, but modern medical experts have proposed a more disturbing explanation: Alexander may not have actually been dead. Dr. Katherine Hall has suggested that he may have suffered from Guillain-Barré Syndrome, a rare neurological condition that can cause complete paralysis while leaving the victim conscious. If this theory is correct, Alexander may have been buried alive, trapped in a paralyzed body and unable to communicate that he was still conscious.
Other theories about his death include typhoid fever, malaria, West Nile virus, acute pancreatitis from excessive drinking, and even poisoning by his own generals. The poisoning theory has never been entirely dismissed, as Alexander had certainly made enough enemies by the end of his life, including some very close to home.
The Conqueror Who Changed the World
When Alexander died, he left behind an empire that stretched from Greece to India, encompassing most of the known world. He had never lost a single battle in fifteen years of almost constant warfare. His military tactics were so effective that they are still studied in military academies around the world today.
But perhaps more important than his military achievements was the cultural transformation he set in motion. By founding more than twenty cities, spreading Greek language and culture throughout his empire, and encouraging intermarriage between Greeks and the peoples they conquered, Alexander created what historians call the Hellenistic world. This fusion of Greek, Persian, Egyptian, and Indian cultures would influence art, science, philosophy, and religion for centuries to come.
Alexander was a walking contradiction: a brilliant military strategist who could also be incredibly reckless; a man who claimed to seek the "ends of the world" but who died in a palace; a leader who inspired fanatical loyalty but who killed his closest friend in a drunken rage; a conqueror who adopted the customs of the people he defeated. He was, in every sense, larger than life—a figure so extraordinary that even today, more than two millennia after his death, we are still trying to understand how one person could have accomplished so much in such a short time.
Whether Alexander was a hero or a villain, a brilliant leader or a megalomaniacal tyrant, depends largely on one's perspective. What cannot be disputed is that he was one of the most influential figures in human history, a man whose actions changed the course of civilization and whose legend continues to inspire and fascinate people around the world. In the end, perhaps the most remarkable thing about Alexander the Great is not that he conquered most of the known world before his thirty-second birthday, but that he did it all while remaining so thoroughly, recognizably human—complete with all the flaws, passions, and contradictions that make the best stories worth telling.